information visualization
視覺表示能夠應用於說明關係(to illustrate relations)、確認模式(to identify patterns)、呈現概觀與細節(to present both an overview and details)、支援問題解決(to support problem solving)以及傳播不同知識類型(to communicate different knowledge types)等任務，具有激勵人們(to motivate people)、提出新觀點(to present new perspectives)、增強記憶(to increase remembrance)、支援學習的過程(to support the process of learning)、集中觀看者的注意力(to focus the attention of the viewer)和組織與協調通訊(to structure and coordinate communication)等優點(Eppler [16])。本研究區別資訊視覺化(information visualization)和知識視覺化(knowledge visualization)，將資訊視覺化定義為利用視覺化方法與過程，探索抽象的資料，產生新的洞見(insight)，如Card et al. [2]所定義的「使用電腦支援、互動與視覺表達資料資料，藉以增強認知」；而知識視覺化則是利用視覺表示來改善人或群體間的知識移轉(knowledge transfer)。知識視覺化可以幫助管理者減少資訊過荷(information overload)、誤解(misinterpretation)和誤用(misuse)等問題。
由於知識移轉需要解決資訊深度(information depth)、有限時間(limited time)、不同認知背景(difference cognitive background)和資訊相關性(information relevance)等困難。不同的任務需要不同的視覺化方法，整合多種方法可以達到互補的效用，增進知識移轉的效能與動機等品質、增進接收者的注意力、減少資訊過荷、改善決策。因此，本研究認需要提供管理者一個架構(framework)，幫助他們針對個別任務發現最有希望的視覺化方法。本研究根據知識類型(knowledge type)、接收者類型(recipient type)、視覺化類型(visualization type)等三個觀點提出知識視覺化的架構。知識類型在於考慮需要移轉的知識為何種類型，例如陳述性知識(declarative knowledge)、程序性知識(procedural knowledge)、實驗性知識(experimental knowledge)、方位性知識(orientational knowledge)、個人知識(individual knowledge)。接收者類型的目的在確認目標族群以及接收者的情境脈絡(context)和認知背景。
The transfer of knowledge is a core process and difficult to manage [1]. For the transfer of knowledge the following difficulties need to be solved:
• Information depth: Trade off between an overview and details that need to be communicated.
• Limited time: Limited time, attention and capacity of the recipients.
• Different background: Different cognitive backgrounds and difficulties of decision makers to understand the novel information visualization tools.
• Relevance: Providing the relevant information to different stakeholders.
What is missing, is a mediating framework for the use of visualization methods for different tasks that concern managers; starting from information exploration and ending with the transfer of knowledge. The methods should be customized to the recipients' cognitive background and information need. This missing framework would help managers to find the most promising visualization method for the individual task.
Knowledge visualization examines methods to reduce the predominant problems of managers:
• Information overload: Decision Makers cannot identify the relevant information.
• Misinterpretation: Decision makers cannot understand, evaluate and interpret the information.
• Misuse: Decision makers cannot use or misuse the information for decision making.
In an analysis on the way how architects use visual representation for the transfer of knowledge we found a simple but important insight: Architects combine different visualization types that complement one another to illustrate different levels of details. Combining traditional visualizations with novel information visualizations is a promising approach that increases the knowledge transfer quality (effectiveness, motivation) and the attention of recipients, reduces the information overload and as a consequence improves decision making.
Several empirical studies show that visual representations are superior to verbal-sequential representations in different tasks, i.e. to illustrate relations, to identify patterns, to present both an
overview and details, to support problem solving and to communicate different knowledge types [12-14].
The use of visual metaphors is effective for the transfer of knowledge [15]. Eppler [16] describes six advantages: (1) to motivate people, (2) to present new perspectives, (3) to increase remembrance, (4) to support the process of learning, (5) to focus the attention of the viewer and (6) to structure and coordinate communication.
Information visualization is a rapidly advancing field of study [2-6].Card et al. [2] define it, as "... the use of computer-supported, interactive, visual representations of abstract data to amplify cognition".
We define knowledge visualization as: Knowledge visualization examines the use of visual representations to improve the transfer of knowledge between at least two persons or group of persons.
Information visualization and knowledge visualization are both exploiting our innate abilities to effectively process visual representations. But the way of using these abilities differs: Information visualization aims to explore abstract data and to create new insights. Knowledge visualization in contrast aims to improve the transfer of knowledge between at least two persons or groups of persons.
Bertin [5] created a semiology of graphic representation methods.
Lohse et al. [31] report a structural classification of visual representations. It focuses on the classification of visual representations into hierarchically structured categories. Six groups were introduced: graphs, tables, maps, diagrams, networks and icons.
Shneiderman [32] proposes a type by task taxonomy of information visualization where he sorts out the design prototypes to guide researchers to new visualization approaches.
For an effective transfer of knowledge three perspectives are important: a Knowledge Type Perspective, a Recipient Type Perspective and a Visualization Type Perspective.
The Knowledge Type Perspective aims to identify the type of knowledge that needs to be transferred. Different types of knowledge are described in knowledge management literature. For our framework we distinguish five types of knowledge: Declarative knowledge (Know-what), procedural knowledge (Know-how), experimental knowledge (Know-why), orientational knowledge (Know-where), individual knowledge (Know-who).
The Recipient Type Perspective aims to identify the target group and the context of the recipient. The recipient can be an individual, a team, a whole organization or a network of persons. Knowing the context and the cognitive background of the recipient is essential for finding the right visualization method for the transfer of knowledge.
The Visualization Type Perspective aims to establish a simple taxonomy that is able to structure the existing visualization methods.
In contrast to information visualization, which exploits our innate abilities to effectively process visual representation to explore information, knowledge visualization uses these abilities to improve the transfer of knowledge between at least two persons or group of persons.
A sketch as seen in Figure 2 outlines a first rough or incomplete draught or plan. It represents the main idea and key features of a preliminary study. Sketches are atmospheric, fast and universally accessible. Sketches help to quickly visualize an idea with the flexibility to handle any shape one imagines.
Garland defines a diagram as a “visual language sign having the primary purpose of denoting function and/or relationship” [28]. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations diagrams help to reduce complexity and amplify cognition. Visualizing a complex situation with boxes and arrows, helps in understanding causal relationships. Diagrams help to categorize and structure information to improve decision making. In contrast to sketches they are precise and determined.
Kemp defines an image (Figure 3) as: “Images are representations which are primarily concerned with impression, expression, or realism.” [29]. An image can among others be a rendering, a photograph or a painting. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations images help to get attention, inspire recipients, to anchor a message through addressing emotions, to improve recall or to provoke discussions.
Physical objects or architectural models bring together plans and sections, help to imagine a spatial
composition and enables to see a project from different viewpoints. They can be abstract or realistic. Physical objects are haptic and allow to experience materials. Architectural models allow to control difficult details. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations objects help to get the attention, to initiate discussions, present different views, to improve learning through constant presence or to integrate digital interfaces.
Interactive visualizations are computer-based electronic visualizations that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of information or media. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations interactive visualizations help for example to fascinate recipients, to enable interactive collaboration, to reveal unforeseen relationships and to present complex data.
Bertin [5] created a semiology of graphic representation methods.
Lohse et al. [31] report a structural classification of visual representations. It focuses on the classification of visual representations into hierarchically structured categories. Six groups were introduced: graphs, tables, maps, diagrams, networks and icons.
Shneiderman [32] proposes a type by task taxonomy of information visualization where he sorts out the design prototypes to guide researchers to new visualization approaches.
For an effective transfer of knowledge three perspectives are important: a Knowledge Type Perspective, a Recipient Type Perspective and a Visualization Type Perspective.
The Knowledge Type Perspective aims to identify the type of knowledge that needs to be transferred. Different types of knowledge are described in knowledge management literature. For our framework we distinguish five types of knowledge: Declarative knowledge (Know-what), procedural knowledge (Know-how), experimental knowledge (Know-why), orientational knowledge (Know-where), individual knowledge (Know-who).
The Recipient Type Perspective aims to identify the target group and the context of the recipient. The recipient can be an individual, a team, a whole organization or a network of persons. Knowing the context and the cognitive background of the recipient is essential for finding the right visualization method for the transfer of knowledge.
The Visualization Type Perspective aims to establish a simple taxonomy that is able to structure the existing visualization methods.
In contrast to information visualization, which exploits our innate abilities to effectively process visual representation to explore information, knowledge visualization uses these abilities to improve the transfer of knowledge between at least two persons or group of persons.
A sketch as seen in Figure 2 outlines a first rough or incomplete draught or plan. It represents the main idea and key features of a preliminary study. Sketches are atmospheric, fast and universally accessible. Sketches help to quickly visualize an idea with the flexibility to handle any shape one imagines.
Garland defines a diagram as a “visual language sign having the primary purpose of denoting function and/or relationship” [28]. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations diagrams help to reduce complexity and amplify cognition. Visualizing a complex situation with boxes and arrows, helps in understanding causal relationships. Diagrams help to categorize and structure information to improve decision making. In contrast to sketches they are precise and determined.
Kemp defines an image (Figure 3) as: “Images are representations which are primarily concerned with impression, expression, or realism.” [29]. An image can among others be a rendering, a photograph or a painting. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations images help to get attention, inspire recipients, to anchor a message through addressing emotions, to improve recall or to provoke discussions.
Physical objects or architectural models bring together plans and sections, help to imagine a spatial
composition and enables to see a project from different viewpoints. They can be abstract or realistic. Physical objects are haptic and allow to experience materials. Architectural models allow to control difficult details. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations objects help to get the attention, to initiate discussions, present different views, to improve learning through constant presence or to integrate digital interfaces.
Interactive visualizations are computer-based electronic visualizations that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of information or media. ... For the transfer of knowledge in organizations interactive visualizations help for example to fascinate recipients, to enable interactive collaboration, to reveal unforeseen relationships and to present complex data.
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